What were the main developments in race relations in the US, 1945-1968?
#625Lab – History, marked 87/100, detailed feedback at the very bottom. You may also like: Leaving Cert History Guide (€).
In 1776, the Declaration of Independence stated that all US citizens were born equal, but this certainly was not the case for African-Americans in the US. Up until the 1960s, the black community were treated like second class citizens in all aspects of American life and society, and the Jim Crow laws implemented in the South further segregated US society. In 1896, the Supreme Court even ruled segregation constitutional in the case of Plessy vs Ferguson. However, with the growth of the mass media following World War II amd (amid) increased influence among the black community, African Americans began to demand their rights. In what would be a slow process, the Civil Rights movement succeeded in winning equal rights for all by 1965.
The first main development in race relations was the desgregation (desegregation) of the US army. Before World War II, African Americans were not permitted to join the Air Corps or Marines. Throughout the war, the army was segregated by race, but white officers were placed in charge of black contingents. In 1946, President Harry Truman established a Committee on Civil Rights, which recommended integrating the armed forces. In 1947, Truman began to undertake their suggestions and started the process of integration. This was a major development in race relations, as it was the first official step towards equality and represented presidential support for the Civil Rights Movement.
Another major development in race relations was the gradual integration of the education system. In 1954, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), which was established in 1909 to fight for the constitutional rights of African-Americans, took the case of Brown vs Topeka to the Supreme Court. A young girl, Linda Brown, was not permitted to attend a local white school and therefore had to travel miles to school each day. The NAACP argued that this was unconstituional (unconstitutional) under the 14th Ammendment (Amendment) and won the case. Segreation (Segregation) is (in) all schools was then ruled unconstitutional by the Supreme Court. However, the process of integration was not an easy one. In 1957, President Eisenhower was forced to send federal forces into Little Rock High School in Arkansas to protect nine black students from violence. Similarly, in 1962, President Kennedy sent forces into the University of Mississippi to protect African-American student James Meredith from protestors. Although the process of integration caused violent outbursts and riots amongst some members of the public, it was clearly successful as in 1969, 20% of black children attended previously white schools, compared to 1% in 1959.
The next major development in US race relations was undoubtedly the integration of public facilities. The fight for equality in this area was sparked in December 1955 when Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat on a segregated bus in Montgomery and was subsequently arrest. Montgomery had a 40% black population and some of the most restrictive segregation laws in the US. The Montgomery Bus Boycott was them launched by Jo-Ann Robinson and the NAACP in December 1955. It lasted 381 days in total and cost the bus companies $250,000. Overall, the boycott proved to be a huge success for the Civil Rights Movement, as segregation on public transport was ruled illegal in November 1956.
Similarly, the process of peaceful protests known as “sit-ins” became popular amongst students and members of Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC). It was sparked in 1960 in North Carolina, when four black students sat down in a segregated restaurant and asked to be served. Hundreds of thousands of other students followed suit, and soon all public facilities in the south were integrated. During the Freedom Rides of 1961, activists rode around the southern cities on buses, ensuring that the equality laws were being enforced.
Perhaps one of the biggest developments in race relations in the US was the progressive leadership of Martin Luther King Jnr. A charismatic, energetic and well-educated pastor, King became the face of the Civil Rights Movement. King promoted peaceful protests and resistance and called for interracial cooperation. A pacifist, King was a believer in using peaceful means to gain equal voting rights for African-Americans. Previously, African-Americans were impeded from voting by unfair poll tax and literacy tests. King’s motto was “free by ‘63” and he led his followers in numerous peaceful marches of resistance, such as his march to Selma.
King’s most influential march was that of August 196, where he led 200,000 of his followers to the Lincoln Memorial in Washington D.C. and delivered his “I have a dream” speech. This directly resulted in one of the biggest developments in US race relations at the time: the passing of the Civil Rights Act in 1964 and the Voting Rights Act in 1965. Passed by President Johnson, these acts gave, legally, equality to all and banned discrimination on grounds of race. It also gave equal voting rights to all African-Americans in the south and was a major achievement for both King and all organisations involved in the Civil Rights Movement.
However, a militant side of the Civil Rights Movement also developed, with the leader of SNCC, Stokely Carmichael, openly denouncing interracial cooperation by 1964. In 1966, the paramilitary group, the Black Panthers, were set up under Huey Newton. Tired of what they viewed as King’s ‘useless rhetoric’, the black nationalist group called on African-Americans to stockpile weapons to use against the police. As a result of these organisations and the growing racial conflict, hundreds of riots broke out during the summers of 1966 and 1967 in Chicago, Detroit and New Jersey. In 1967 alone, 83 people died as a result of over 160 riots. Elsewhere, the Ku Klux Klan were openly terrorising members of the black community, sending them violent threats and warnings. Due to this growth in violence, a huge gap developed between members of the black and white communities and tension and violence grew as a result.
Another development in race relations at this time was how the black Civil Rights Movement inspired other minorities to fight for their rights. The ‘Brown Power’ movement of the Mexican-Americans were one such group that emerged. In 1967, the ‘Red Power’ movement of the native American-Indians began fighting for their rights too, and staged a massive protest in this year.
Therefore, I believe it is clear that there was some major developments in race relations in the US from 1945-1968. Although not always easy, the new middle-class black community that emerged in the decades after World War II used their new-found affluence and education to campaign for their rights. Slowly but surely, every aspect of American life was integrated, as a result of the hard work and dedication of many organisations and individuals. Although the movement later took a violent turn, it was the peaceful tactics used that led to the passing of laws which are still relevant in the US today and help to make America a more tolerant and equal society.
Feedback: This is a good essay that answers the question in a comprehensive and well-written way. It’s great that you included a paragraph about other minorities as it shows that you know the topic really well. It’s a good length for an essay, and all the information you include is relevant and accurate, and you mention plenty of key personalities. To improve, try to include a few quotations from historians or historical figures. Be careful of small spelling errors like the ones I’ve highlighted in bold, as examiners will be watching out for things like this. Don’t use personal phrases like “I believe” in a history essay as you ought to be objective. Instead of “therefore” in your conclusion, it might be better to simply say “in conclusion”, in order to highlight the fact that the essay is ending.
Cumulative Mark: This essay could definitely achieve 60/60 for its cumulative mark.
Overall Evaluation Mark: I would give this about 27 out of 40 for its overall evaluation mark.
Total Mark: 87/100
Another essay for the same title. Credit: Caoimhe Flynn
Race relations in America from 1945 to 1968 were a hugely topical issue and significant change was brought about during this time. After the emancipation of slavery in the 1800’s, black people were living in slavery in all but name. This is because of the Jim Crowe laws, mainly enforced in the South of the country which were put in place to ensure that black people would always remain inferior to the white community. The 1896 case of Plessey vs Ferguson ruled that segregation was legal once the facilities remained equal, a condition that we know was not adhered to. The civil rights movement began when black people realised that they deserved better and used the method of peaceful protest to achieve desegregation in education, transport and public spaces, which all concluded with the signing of the Civil Rights Act and the Voting Rights act in 1964 and 1965 respectively. This time was hugely significant for the black community in American and brought about great change for a country that was deeply racist.
Truman began to desegregate the army to try and improve race relations. Truman was the first American President to address the problem of segregation facing his country. After fighting for their country and seeing many fellow African Americans die whilst fighting they felt that they deserve equal rights due to the sacrifice which they had made for America. African Americans fought in separate units, and after seeing how integrated England was and experiencing an integrated society the Black soldiers wanted that in their own country. It was also difficult for the United States to reprimand other countries for human rights violations whilst treating its black citizens so poorly. It was ironic that the American troops were fighting against the segregation in Nazi Germany whilst there was segregation occurring in their own backyard. Segregation brought international shame to the US and Truman decided to desegregate the army in an attempt to reduce this shame. This was a positive step in the right direction however was not enough to drastically change race relations in America.
The segregation of schools could no longer be justified by Plessey vs Ferguson and were challenged by the Civil Rights movement. Linda Brown was the first civil rights case to be brought to the Supreme Court. Linda Brown was a 3rd Grade African American Girl who had to walk 20 blocks past the local white school in order to attend the Black school. Her father supported by the NAACP reinforced a message that segregate schools were separate and therefore unequal challenging the Plessey vs Ferguson case. The Board of Education argued that segregated schools were preparing the children for what they would face in later life however it was decided that ‘separate (separate) educational facilities are naturally unequal’ and it was decided that schools across America should be desegregated. This was a positive move however there was no deadline for this ruling and want Southern States remained segregated. One school in Little Rock, Arkansas, attempted to become integrated, however when 9 Black students tried to enroll (enroll) they were met by state troops and a mob of protesters. Paratroopers were sent by the President to protect these students for 1 year. These students faced horrendous punishment, through abuse, both physical and verbal, along with expulsion over minute offenses such as standing up for themselves. The events at Little Rock were deemed unconstitutional and brought about great support for the civil rights movement due to the media coverage. Ernest Green became the first African American to graduate from Little Rock Central High School in 1958. The improvements in integrating the education system were a major leap forward for the movement and showed them the value of using the Supreme Court to make real changes.
Protests in Montgomery led to the desegregation of buses and the emergence of strong leaders for the Civil Rights movement. Montgomery was a hugely segregated city even though there was a large minority of 40% African American. This group were the main users of the bus service, however this along with most other public services was segregated, with black people suffering abuse from drivers and being forced to stand in order to give a white person a seat. Rosa Parks was the first high profile case to be taken after she defied this segregation and refused to give up her seat to a white person. On the day of her trial, the 5th of December 1955, a boycott of the bus service was planned by the Women’s Council to protest segregation on buses. It was well organised, with carpools being arranged and taxis offering cheaper fares so that boycotters could get to work. The boycott faced a lot of resistance during its 11 month duration, with carpool stations being targeted by the KKK and people being arrested for loitering whilst waiting for taxis. MLK emerged as a strong leader as he urged the black community in his city and church to commit to the boycott and remain peaceful. He met with bus company managers, whom eventually agreed to their demands of desegregated buses, black drivers and fair treatment to all passengers. MLK and other leaders rode on the first desegregated bus. This was a step forward for the movement however the ruling did not spread to all cities across America.
The events such as the lunch counter sit ins and the freedom rides highlighted the persistence of the black protesters and desegregated towns and buses across America. The student sit ins began on February 1st 1960, when 4 African-American students sat at a white lunch counter in Greensboro, North Carolina and philately asked to be served. They were refused and day by day, respectably dressed black students joined the movement at lunch counters across America. As the protest grew so did opposition, with students being harassed verbally and physically; one protesters coat was even set on fire. By the end of 1960, economic pressure grew for the company and they eventually desegregated lunch counters across America, with the movement spreading to libraries and churches, towns began desegregated. Even though towns were becoming desegregated and buses had previously been desegregated, bus stations and buses in some states, mainly the deep south like Birmingham, Alabama remained extremely racist and segregated. The SNCC took up freedom riders who would ride through the towns to protest segregation on buses. They faced great resistance with buses being set on fire and over 200 riders were arrested. The governor did little ti protect the protesters until he was put under pressure by President JFK. Black Americans had achieved great success in desegregating towns across America, but also showed that they were no longer willing to be intimidated.
MLK and the SCLC turned their efforts to desegregating Birmingham, Alabama. According to MLK Birmingham was the most segregated city in America. Employment and public facilities including bathrooms, benches and water fountains were all segregated. Fair grounds and to hold ‘coloured days’ and in 1962, the city council closed off all public facilities to black people. In April 1963 MLK and other leaders continued their tactic of peaceful protest, and although protected by the constitution, a circuit court judged ruled their protest illegal, leading to the arrest of 500 people including MLK’s. To continue the campaign a ‘children’s crusade’, including thousands of school children, were trained in peaceful protest and they marched through the city. Bull O’Conner, the deeply racist Commissioner of Public Safety ruled for the use of water canons, dogs and batons to break up the children. Photos and videos of the events became widespread and caused uproar. The mayor agreed to meet leaders and they came to agreement to desegregate business in Birmingham. The events in Birmingham brought further need for a civil rights bill and led to President JFK saying that America ‘will not be fully free until all of it’s (its) citizens are free’, showing the governments support for equal rights and commitment to the Civil Rights Bill.
The March of Washington showed the support for the civil rights movement and brought about the end of leal (legal) segregation in America. On August 28th 1963 the March on Washington riveted the nation. An attendance of 100,000 was expected but 200,00 people black and white showed up to call on the President and Congress to provide ‘Jobs and Freedom’ for black people in America. The group marched to Lincoln Memorial where Martin Luther King delivered his iconic ‘I had a dream’ speech. He made the movement personal which drew support. MLK was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts. In 1964, President Johnson followed on in the late JFK’s honour and signed the Civil Rights Bill into the constitution. It brought about the end of legal segregation in America and became known as the ‘second emacipation (emancipation)’. This was a huge victory for the civil rights movement and brought about great (great) change in America however voting was still extremal unequal leading to a lack of representation in government.
Even though the Civil Rights act had been passed, Voting inequality remained a problem for African American people in America. Black people were prevented from voting by literacy tests, poll taxes and intimidation, all which were aimed at maintaining white dominance in government. The SNCC and SCNL decided to protest this and targeted their efforts at one of the worst effected (affected) areas, Selma, Alabama, where only 2% of eligible African Americans were registered to vote. Segregationist governor, George Wallace was a strong opposer of the movement and his violent reaction would bring publicity and support for the movement. After prominent Civil rights campaigner was killed whilst protesting Voting discrimination, a march was planned from Selma to Montgomery, 54miles between two of the most segregated cities in the country. The first march was cut short after 1/2 mile when marchers were charged by the police with batons and teargas. The second march was stopped by Martin Luther King, who turned back when he saw the flashing police lights ahead so to not endanger the marchers. The third march was successful as President Johnson sent paratroopers to protect the marchers. It took them 5 days to get to Montgomery and over 30000 people joined the march. The Voting rights Bill was eventually passed in 1964 and gave Black people better representation at all levels of government.
The civil rights movement in America achieved significant gains in the years 1945-1968. Through peaceful protest the movement highlights the deep segregation in society and the imminent need for change. Peaceful demonstrations were generally attacked by segregationists often forcing the judicial system to step in and help. Using these tactics American buses, schools and public places were desegregated. Monumental legislation such at the Civil Rights Bill and the Voting Rights Act enshrined in law the protection of the rights of African Americans and ended legal segregation. However despot (despite) all this black people living in America still face racism and inequality on a daily basis, with recent Black Lives Matter movements and poverty remaining high among the African American community. We are still left dreaming, like MLK in 1963 of an America where ‘children are judged on the content of their character and not the colour of their skin’.
Feedback: This is a good essay that answers the question well with lots of relevant and accurate factual information. You also make good use of quotation, so keep this up. Your introduction gives good context and lays out the essay well, and your conclusion is good as it sums up the essay but also adds something more by tying it into the present day. All of your paragraphs are good, but it might be good to highlight how each of these events are a new development, and to comment on whether this was a positive or negative development. Watch out for small spelling errors, and always spell out numbers under 101.
Cumulative Mark: As this essay only has 9 paragraphs, each paragraph would need to achieve 6 or 7 marks for you to reach the maximum 60 cumulative marks – as it stands, this would achieve around 55 marks out of 60. You can bring this up by adding extra paragraphs, or by splitting some of your current paragraphs to make more short paragraphs.
Overall Evaluation: For Overall Evaluation, this essay would achieve around 25 out of 40. To bring this up, you can improve the commentary that you make in each paragraph.
Total: 80/100
